This episode originally aired in November, 2020.

Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

Today, we’re talking turkey. With the holidays coming up, you can choose a bird that is free-range, organic, or conventional. But what’s the difference between them? And which type of turkey is best for the planet? 

We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into this question. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So, Luci, what do all these labels mean? 

Luci Jones: To be honest, the differences can be pretty subtle, so we spoke with Dr. Eric Gingrich, a veterinarian at Diamond V, an animal feed company. He actually grew up on a turkey farm in northern Indiana.

Eric Gingrich: Yeah, we would have maybe I think we had like 7000 on a pasture. Very friendly. They’ll come and peck at ya.

Megan Hall: So, how does Eric define all of these different types of turkeys?

Fatima Husain: Let’s start with conventional birds. Eric says those turkeys are kept inside climate controlled facilities in pens with access to food and water. And all of them are tested for pesticides before they’re slaughtered.

Eric Gingerich:If they use antibiotics, they have to be prescribed by a veterinarian, and it’s only for disease conditions.

Megan Hall: Okay, what about organic turkeys? 

Luci Jones: Organic turkeys eat feed that’s grown without the use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. They have some access to the outdoors and aren’t processed with preservatives.  

Eric Gingerich: The genetics is the same for organic birds and conventional birds, the only difference is the feed

Fatima Husain: Another label to know is “free-range.” This just means the turkey can roam outdoors, but can still use antibiotics and eat the same feed as conventional turkeys. 

Megan Hall: So, which kind of turkey should I buy?

Luci Jones: Well, if you’re going on price, conventional turkeys are cheapest.

Megan Hall: But, organic ones are better for the planet?

Fatima Husain: Well, organic turkeys ARE raised without antibiotics. And that means they’re less likely to spread antibiotic-resistant bacteria. 

Luci Jones: When farmers give antibiotics to conventional turkeys, only antibiotic-resistant bacteria survive and multiply. 

Fatima Husain: And when those turkeys poop, the antibiotic-resistant microbes can spread through dust or make their way into local waterways.

Megan Hall: Oh no!

Luci Jones: That being said, organic turkeys aren’t perfect either. 

Fatima Husain: Organic farms might not use antibiotics, but a lot of them still use pesticides and fertilizers from natural sources, like sulfur and horse manure. 

Megan Hall: But if they’re natural, doesn’t that mean they’re still safer than the stuff that’s used with conventional turkeys? 

Luci Jones: Well, not necessarily. A lot of natural things can really harm us, like venom or asbestos. 

Fatima Husain: And when you’re buying a turkey, it’s hard to know which pesticides went into its food. 

Luci Jones: Here’s another concern about organic turkeys — they have more nitrogen in their poop. 

Megan Hall: Excuse me?

Fatima Husain: Organic turkeys don’t get the food additives that decrease the amount of nitrogen in their waste.

Luci Jones: And when they poop, that extra nitrogen can make its way into the air and water, which contributes to global warming. 

Megan Hall: And what about free-range birds, where do they fit into all of this?

Fatima Husain: Free-range birds are pretty similar to conventional ones. 

Megan Hall: So, which kind should I buy?

Luci Jones: Well, it’s hard to say. Labels just tell one small part of a much more nuanced story. 

Fatima Husain: A turkey might be “free range,” but also raised with antibiotics on a huge farm. Another one might be “organic” but still use feed made with harmful natural pesticides. 

Luci Jones: So, if the impact of your turkey choice matters to you, do your homework, and dig into the details beyond its description.

Fatima Husain: And in that case, actually knowing your farmer and the way they raise their turkeys, is probably the best choice. 

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. 

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

When you think of a plate of food, what’s normally right smack dab in the middle? A big hunk of meat? What if our first instinct was to say fish or shrimp? Would eating more seafood cut down on our greenhouse gas emissions? 

Here to look into this question are Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So what’s all this fuss about seafood?

Luci Jones: To learn more, we reached out to chef, author, and self-proclaimed seafood evangelist Barton Seaver. He’s on a mission to get people everywhere to eat more seafood.

Barton Seaver: I love bluefish. You got to capture it in its pristine state. It’s got this sexy, seductive texture that melts in your mouth. And it has this wonderful sort of vibrant presence to it and pairs beautifully with basil and red wine and cheese and it’s delicious.

Megan Hall: Wow, you’re making me hungry! So why does Barton want us all to eat more seafood? 

Fatima Husain: He says compared to land animal protein, like beef, fish has some pretty substantial pluses. 

Megan Hall: Like what?

Luci Jones: Well, for one, lower greenhouse gas emissions.

Fatima Husain: It takes a lot of energy to raise animals like cows and pigs. Think about all of the greenhouse gas emissions that come from just farming the crops to feed them. 

Luci Jones: Plus, remember, when cows burp, they release methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.  

Megan Hall: I guess fish aren’t burping up emissions underwater?

Fatima Husain: Not really.  

Luci Jones: Also, all of the land we use for raising animals and growing crops to feed them doesn’t really support any other kinds of plants or animals. They’re sort of “biological deserts” with very little biodiversity. 

Megan Hall: But doesn’t fishing mess with the biodiversity of the ocean, too?

Fatima Husain: Yes, of course. But it’s nowhere near as bad as the way farming wipes out plants and animals on land. 

Megan Hall: Ok, so I’ll start eating more seafood!

Luci Jones: Not so fast. Not all seafood is created equally. For instance, fishers often drag nets on the bottom of the seafloor to catch scallops. This practice “clear cuts” the ocean floor.

Fatima Husain: And shrimp farms can also be really hard on biodiversity and create a lot of emissions, especially when people cut down mangroves to make room for them. 

Megan Hall: Ok. So, skip shrimp and scallops. But start eating more fish like salmon and cod? 

Luci Jones: Well, fish, yes, but maybe not more fish…

Fatima Husain: Although fisheries have come a long way when it comes to avoiding overfishing, there is a limit to what we can catch from the oceans, and we are close to that limit. 

Luci Jones: In other words, if we all switched out our hamburgers for salmon, we’d run out of salmon pretty quickly. 

Megan Hall: So what should we do? I always feel like I just have to revert to eating recycled paper in order not to be a bad person.

Fatima Husain: It’s not that bad. Fish is a good option, and if you’re a bit careful about which fish, you can definitely feel good about that delicious meal Barton was pitching.

Luci Jones: If you’re worried about greenhouse gas emissions, here are some simple rules: eat small fish caught in the open ocean, like anchovies and herring.

Fatima Husain: And for farmed fish, stay away from catfish, tilapia, and shrimp.

Luci Jones: But at the end of the day, eating more plant-based meals is still the best way to decrease the environmental impact of your diet.

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way your choices affect our planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts.

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown’s Climate Solutions Initiative, and The Public’s Radio.

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

When I say the word Bitcoin, what comes into your mind? Digital money? Expensive? How about energy hog? It turns out, the cryptocurrency uses A LOT of electricity. 

Here to explain why are Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So let’s start with the basics. What exactly is bitcoin? 

Luci Jones: Bitcoin, and cryptocurrency in general, is hard to define, so we reached out to Alex de Vries, a financial economist who thinks a lot about this topic. He says,  

Alex de Vries:Bitcoin is money. And it’s just like the dollars in your bank account with one major difference, which is that there is no institutions, no governments controlling Bitcoin

Fatima Husain: We don’t really know where Bitcoin came from. It was started anonymously in 2009. Over time, it’s captured the attention of everyone from professional investors to people who collect it just for fun. Today, over 46 million Americans own at least a share of Bitcoin!

Luci Jones: And this cryptocurrency isn’t just a fun experiment. It’s worth some serious money. When it launched, you could get a coin for about $150, but now, each one is worth about $50,000!.

Megan Hall: Wow, that’s a lot of cash. Can I get in on this? How do I get a coin?  

Fatima Husain: You have to mine it! But it won’t be easy. 

Megan Hall: What do you mean by mine? I thought bitcoin was just a bunch of 1s and 0s in the cloud?

Luci Jones: Bitcoin mining is sort of like playing the lottery. There’s a limited number of bitcoins out there and to get one, you basically have to solve really complicated math problems and submit a winning guess. 

Megan Hall: How complicated are these math problems?

Fatima Husain: Well, they’re so complicated that you’d need to run a lot of high-tech computers and servers non-stop for days and days to find an answer. 

Luci Jones: Alex, the financial economist, says all of the people trying to solve these bitcoin math problems submit….

Alex de Vries: more than 140 quintillion guesses every second of the day, non stop, so that’s 140 with 18 zeros after.

Megan Hall: Whoa, that’s a lot of zeros… 

Luci Jones: Yeah! Alex says every year, this process of “mining bitcoin” uses as much energy as some countries, like Argentina! 

Fatima Husain: Not to mention, the process of solving these bitcoin math problems is incredibly inefficient. There’s only one right guess for each coin — so those computers spend lots of energy on guesses that don’t go anywhere. 

Megan Hall: But don’t all forms of money use energy? I mean, you have to print cash. And credit card transactions need electricity. 

Luci Jones: Alex says, Bitcoin uses WAY more energy than any other type of currency. 

Megan Hall: How much more?

Fatima Husain: Let me put it this way— a single bitcoin transaction is responsible for about the same amount of greenhouse gas emissions as 2 million credit card transactions. 

Megan Hall: Ok, that’s a lot. Is there any way to make bitcoin more energy efficient? ?

Luci Jones: Not really. If you want to mine bitcoin, your only option is setting up a massive computer center to solve those complex math problems. 

Megan Hall: What’s your advice to people who are thinking about investing in Bitcoin?

Fatima Husain: Well, if you’re looking to use less energy in your life, Bitcoin is NOT the way to go. 

Luci Jones: If you want to enter the cryptocurrency game, perhaps, do some research into the other, lesser known cryptocurrencies, with an eye towards the energy use behind them. 

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way your choices affect our planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown’s Climate Solutions Initiative, and the Public’s Radio.

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This episode was originally published on October 20, 2020.

Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

[mosquito buzzing noise] Did you ever wish you could wave a wand and get rid of all of those pesky mosquitoes? Especially the ones that spread serious diseases like zika, triple E and malaria? Some scientists think they have a solution. 

We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into this. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So, how are scientists trying to get rid of these mosquitoes? 

Luci Jones: To find out, we talked to Kara Fikrig, a Ph.D. candidate in the Entomology Department at Cornell University. She says scientists are creating genetically modified mosquitoes. They’re all male, and they’re designed to create babies that can’t reproduce.

Kara Fikrig: Their whole purpose is to mate with a female and trick her into mating with him, so then none of her offspring are gonna survive.

Fatima Husain: And the hope is that this makes those mosquito populations go way down. 

Megan Hall: So, would this approach just get rid of mosquitoes entirely?

Luci Jones: Not quite — scientists are actually only trying to kill a very small group of mosquitoes– the ones that feed on human blood and can spread disease.

Megan Hall: I didn’t know there were any other kinds!

Fatima Husain: Actually, there are thousands of species worldwide! Kara says they’re targeting a particular species of mosquito called Aedes aegypti, which are most common in urban areas.

Kara Fikrig: These mosquitoes breed almost exclusively in human made containers. So it could be terracotta, pots, tires, pieces of garbage in your backyard, they breed in these little pockets of water. 

Megan Hall: I have to be honest. This sounds a little scary, like the start of a bad science fiction movie. How do we know that things won’t go terribly wrong? 

Luci Jones: Yeah of course, using genetically modified mosquitoes is not risk-free. 

Fatima Husain: Females mosquitoes could develop a resistance to the lethal gene in those genetically modified males. Or, mosquito populations could intermix and share new genes that change how they interact or what kind of offspring they produce.

Luci. There is a lot that we just don’t know. But Kara thinks genetically-modified mosquitoes could save lives if they’re tested and regulated carefully.

Kara Fikrig: The ones who transmit the most disease feed predominantly on humans, they live around human habitats. they’re not really interconnected with a bigger ecosystem with the way you might expect. There’s currently no strong sign that we would mess anything up by doing this.

Luci Jones: Knocking out harmful mosquitoes this way would also reduce our reliance on insecticides, which are those chemicals we use to kill mosquitos.

Fatima Husain: Kara also says we’ve been using insecticides so much that many mosquitoes have actually mutated to be resistant to them, so we’re already dealing with modified insects!  

Luci Jones: Mosquito-borne diseases kill almost 1 million people per year. They are by far the deadliest animals for humans, so it’s an issue that deserves careful consideration.

Fatima Husain: And as climate change helps mosquitos spread to places that used to be less tropical, this issue will only affect more people.

Megan Hall: Thanks for looking into this, Luci and Fatima! 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society and the Public’s Radio.

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

What does it take to keep your lawn looking green and healthy? A lot of people say you need to use fertilizer. But do you really? And what’s the cost of using this stuff on our grass?

Megan Hall: Here to tell us more are Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: What exactly is fertilizer? What is it supposed to do? 

Luci Jones: So, people add fertilizers to the soil to help plants, like grass, grow. They usually have three key ingredients: phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium plus a bunch of other nutrients.

Megan Hall: And how are fertilizers made in the first place? 

Fatima Husain: Some fertilizers are made from stuff you can find naturally like compost or cow manure. 

Luci Jones: But there are a lot of human-made, or synthetic, fertilizers. And those are created with fossil fuels.  

Megan Hall: What happens when we add fertilizer to our lawns? 

Luci Jones: Well, when you add them to soil, they DO help plants grow, but they don’t always stay in your yard.

Fatima Husain: When it rains, or when you overwater your lawn, fertilizer can drain from the soil into water bodies near your house. 

Luci Jones: To learn more, we talked to Wenley Ferguson, the Director of Restoration at Save the Bay in Rhode Island. She says… 

Wenley Ferguson: Think of your yard as a sponge, and try to have as much of the water that hits your yard stay in your yard.

Megan Hall: But, what if I don’t live near a river or a lake?

Fatima Husain: Well, even if you can’t see a body of water near you, wherever you live, you’re close to what’s called a watershed.

Megan Hall: What’s that? 

Luci Jones: Wenley describes them this way: 

Wenley Ferguson: A watershed is like a large sink. And the water body is the drain.

Fatima Husain: Basically, watersheds are lands that channel rain and melted snow into a specific body of water. Wenley says you’re almost always on top of one.

Wenley Ferguson: When when you’re driving down the road and it says you are entering a watershed area, I always kind of laugh because you just left a watershed too. Every drop of water that hits the earth is going to drain someplace.

Luci Jones: So for instance, here in Providence, Rhode Island, our water drains into the Narragansett Bay watershed. But in Washington County, people live in the Coastal Pond watershed.

Megan Hall: Okay… so, because I live in North Providence, that means, when it rains, any fertilizer in my yard drains into the watershed, and then into Narragansett Bay? 

Fatima Husain: Exactly! 

Megan Hall: What happens when my fertilizer gets into the water? 

Luci Jones: Wenley says two things happen. First, you know how fertilizer is designed to help plants grow? When it’s in the water, it causes algae — tiny, tiny plants — to grow a little too much. This can make the water toxic for humans and animals.

Fatima Husain: And when there is a really big algae bloom, and the water conditions are right, the breakdown of all those algae can remove oxygen from the water, which can kill fish. 

Megan Hall: Is there any way to prevent our fertilizers from getting into the water ? 

Fatima Husain: Yes! You can grow plants that don’t need fertilizer, use it sparingly, or opt for the kind labeled “slow release,” which lets out fewer nutrients at a time. 

Luci Jones: And don’t be afraid to let your lawn go brown in the summer. Wenley says, a brown lawn isn’t a dead lawn, it’ll green up again when the weather gets colder and wetter.

Fatima Husain: These individual actions can make a big difference, but Wenley says what we really need are local bans or limits on fertilizer. 

Luci Jones: So the last thing you can do is spread the word about what happens when fertilizer gets into our water and advocate for landscaping choices that prevent this kind of runoff. 

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown’s Climate Solutions Initiative, and the Public’s Radio.

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This episode was first published on August 31, 2020.

Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

About a month ago, I got a text message, asking me if I was ready to “shave the peak,” The message included a link with tips for using less electricity. 

Sign up for peak updates at greenenergyconsumers.org

Here at Possibly, we wondered— what are these peaks? And do we accomplish anything by trying to shave them?

We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into this question. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So what exactly is a “peak?”

Luci Jones: Peaks are times during the year when our electricity use spikes because there is a sudden surge in demand. Some peak days use almost double the amount of electricity of a normal day!

Megan Hall: Why do these peaks happen? 

Kai Salem: There are two different types of peaks. There’s winter peaks and there are summer peaks. 

Luci Jones: That’s Kai Salem from the Green Energy Consumers Alliance, a non-profit that sends out these “shaving the peak” messages. 

Fatima Husain: She says in the summer, peaks happen on really hot days when folks have the AC on at full blast. In the winter, they happen in the middle of a cold spell when everyone cranks on their heat.

Luci Jones: And the time of day matters too. 

Kai Salem: Almost always the peak will be between five and 7pm. And that’s because it has been hot all day. People are at home, they’re turning on their TVs, they’re starting to cook dinner, the air conditioning is still running.

Megan Hall: What’s wrong with these peaks? 

Luci Jones: Kai says that when electricity use spikes, our typical energy sources aren’t enough to meet our needs. That means that the group operating our power grid has to turn on electric plants that are basically unused the rest of the year.

Kai Salem: You’re starting to scrape the bottom of the barrel when it comes to the power plants we have available to us in New England. 

Fatima Husain: These inefficient power plants create twice as many greenhouse gas emissions per unit of electricity as the ones that run on a typical, non-peak day. 

Megan Hall: So, peak days don’t just use more electricity, they use electricity that’s made in ways that create more pollution?

Luci Jones: Exactly. Peaks are also expensive, because an increase in demand drives up electricity prices.

Fatima Husain: And they force us to build an electricity grid that’s up to the challenge of meeting those peaks, even though they only happen a few times a year. 

Megan Hall: How do organizations know that these peak days are coming?

Luci Jones: They use data about the weather and past electricity spikes to make those predictions.

Megan Hall: So, let’s say I get a text in the morning telling me about an afternoon peak. What should I do next? 

Luci Jones: Kai suggests turning on your AC in the early morning, and then turning it off and closing your windows to keep things cool inside. If you have an electric vehicle, charge it before the afternoon peak comes. 

Fatima Husain: Also, try to avoid using electric appliances like your dryer, washer, and dishwasher.

Luci Jones: And if you absolutely need to keep your AC on, increase the temperature by a few degrees.

Megan Hall: Will doing all of these things really make a difference?

Fatima Husain: Right now, most people don’t even know to try, so it’s hard to tell.

Luci Jones: But if enough people participated, lower peaks could decrease the overall cost of our electricity. 

Fatima Husain: As well as cut down on the extra greenhouse gas emissions that happen on those days.  

Luci Jones: That’s not going to stop climate change, but it’s a good start, especially because electricity production is one of the biggest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the US.

Megan Hall: Great! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. To sign up for text messages about the next energy peak, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Can’t get enough of this show? Subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society and the Public’s Radio. 

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

Today, we’re going to talk about painting roofs white. Some experts say white shingles could lower electricity bills and cool down hot cities. So, should you make the switch?

Megan Hall: Here to tell us more are Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So, why would someone want to paint their roof white? 

Luci Jones: Well, your typical roof is grey, black, or brown. And these dark colors absorb a lot of heat from the sun. 

Fatima Husain: White roofs, on the other hand, reflect a lot more of that incoming sunlight. 

Megan Hall: How much more?

Luci Jones: Check this out—white roofs can reflect up to 90% of sunlight while black surfaces like asphalt can only reflect about 4%, meaning they absorb the rest of that sunlight as heat.

Megan Hall: That seems like a big difference. 

Fatima Husain: Sometimes, that difference is helpful. During the colder months, darker roofs capture incoming heat from the sun, so you don’t have to use as much energy to heat your home.  

Luci Jones: But during warmer months, dark roofs can make life pretty uncomfortable.

Fatima Husain: When they absorb all that extra light, they can warm up your house, which means you’re likely to use more air conditioning.

Luci Jones: And, unless your electricity comes from 100% renewable sources, cranking up your AC adds more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Megan Hall: So, should we all get white roofs?

Fatima Husain: Not so fast — it isn’t a one-size-fits-all fix. 

Luci Jones: Let’s zoom out a bit. When we talk about black roofs capturing more heat, we’re not just talking about one house. The more dark surfaces you have in one place, the hotter it gets.

Fatima Husain: So, this tends to be more of a problem in cities, where there are lots of dark roads and rooftops right next to each other.

Luci Jones: It can actually get so warm that scientists have given these places a special name: urban heat islands.

Fatima Husain: For example, a place the size of New York City can be about 1 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than the nearest countryside.

Megan Hall: So could white roofs bring down the temperature in these areas?

Luci Jones: New York seems to think so! The government there is working to cover black roofs with white reflective paint all around the city.

Arianna Williams:

So we’ve been cooling the city for about 10 years. And in one year we aim to paint a million square feet. That’s about 13 soccer pitches.

Fatima Husain: That’s Arianna Williams, the co-supervisor for the New York City CoolRoofs program, talking in an informational video on their website. 

Megan Hall: She thinks that white paint can really make a difference?

Luci Jones: She does! Arianna actually demonstrates this by using an infrared thermometer to measure the temperature of a black roof on a hot day… 

Arianna Williams:

And that’s reading about 167 degrees. And when I pointed over here to the white–it reads it’s 116 degrees now. And that’s only the first coating of the paint.

Megan Hall: Wow, that’s huge! 

Luci Jones: It is! Scientists say white roofs could help us avoid the most extreme effects of climate change in urban areas, like heat waves.

Megan Hall: Ok, so I’m dying to know: Should I get a white roof?

Fatima Husain: Well, the answer depends on where you live.

Luci Jones: If you live in a dense city or parts of the country where it’s warm for most of the year, you could save a lot of electricity by painting your roof white. Not to mention, you’ll be a lot cooler!

Fatima Husain: But if you live in a less populated place where you use heating more than air conditioning, it might not be worth it to ditch your dark roof.

Luci Jones: White roofs aren’t the cure-all for climate change, but if you live in a place that fits the bill, they can be an effective way to reduce your greenhouse gas emissions. 

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown’s Climate Solutions Initiative, and the Public’s Radio.

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

Megan Hall: These days, it seems like there’s an organic option for every type of food out there, including meat. But organic usually means more expensive. That made us wonder, is it worth it to pay more for organic meat? And does it create fewer greenhouse gas emissions? 

Megan Hall: We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into this question. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: Luci, let’s say I’m walking through my local grocery store and I see a piece of meat with the organic label on it. What exactly does that label mean?

Luci Jones: That’s a great question! To learn more, we talked to Amelie Michalke, a PhD student at the University of Greifswald in Germany. She’s done a lot of work on the environmental impacts of different kinds of food. She says organic meat is raised with… 

Amelie Michalke: No synthetic fertilizers are allowed, no pesticides are allowed or no antibiotics.

Fatima Husain: It also means that animals have to eat organic feed too.

Megan Hall: Got it. So are organic meats better for the environment?

Luci Jones: Amelie and her colleagues actually did some research related to that question. 

Fatima Husain: Their work focused on how organic and conventional foods are produced and how that affects their greenhouse gas emissions. 

Megan Hall: What did they find out? 

Luci Jones: Well, if you compared the process for growing plants versus producing meat there’s a big difference in emissions. But….

Amelie Michalke: These results showed us that the difference between conventional and organic meat isn’t as big as we anticipated before.

Megan Hall: So, there’s really not a significant difference? Why?

Fatima Husain: Well, there are a couple of reasons. First, is feed. Conventional farms tend to be more efficient because they can use pesticides and antibiotics to protect their crops.

Luci Jones: Because organic farms have to source organic feed for their animals, the emissions associated with producing that feed tend to be higher because it takes more land to grow the same amount of food. 

Fatima Husain: And more land being used means more forests getting cleared for agriculture, which means fewer plants and trees taking in and burying carbon dioxide.

Megan Hall: What’s the second reason?

Luci Jones: Cow burps and poop. 

Megan Hall: What? 

Fatima Husain: Let me explain- The process is a little complicated, but here’s the short version— because of the way animals like cows break down their food, they actually create methane when they burp and poop. 

Luci Jones: Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. And organic animals tend to live longer than conventional ones, so they generate more methane over the course of their lifetimes.

Megan Hall: So does this mean buying organic meat doesn’t make a difference?

Fatima Husain: Not necessarily. Amelie says that this study just looked into the difference between greenhouse emissions for organic and conventional agriculture. But that doesn’t tell the whole story.

Luci Jones: She says conventional farming has other negative impacts- pesticide and antibiotic use can lead to other environmental harms that the study didn’t measure. 

Fatima Husain: So, even though the difference for greenhouse gas emissions isn’t that big, Amelie says,

Amelie Michalke: In the grand scheme of things. It’s still better to use organic products, because it’s just better for the environment, generally. 

Fatima Husain: However, if you want to reduce the emissions that come from your food, Amelie says the best thing you can do is just decrease the amount of meat you eat in the first place. 

Luci Jones: She says, her research has taught her that raising livestock of any kind creates a huge strain on the environment.

Amelie Michalke: So I decided to go vegan about three and a half years ago now. And yeah, I’ve never looked back. And it feels really good to actually reciprocate what I’m doing at work also at home and on my plate.

Luci Jones: But, if that’s intimidating, you can start small. Skipping meat just a few days a week still makes a big difference. 

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, Brown’s Climate Solutions Initiative, and the Public’s Radio.

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

[insect buzzing noise]

Megan Hall: With spring approaching, we’re about to hear one of Earth’s most familiar sounds… 

[insect buzzing noise comes back louder]

Megan Hall: There are about 5.5 million different species of bugs and they make up nearly 80% of all animals on Earth. But all is not well with the world’s most abundant critters.  

[buzzing stop abruptly]

Megan Hall: What’s happening to insects? And why should we care?

Megan Hall: We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into all the buzz. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So, why are we talking about bugs today?

Luci Jones: Well, first, bugs are just really cool. 

Akito Kawahara: There are many insect fun facts. I don’t know where to start. 

Fatima Husain: That’s Akito Kawahara, the curator of butterflies, moths, and insects at the Florida Museum of Natural History. He loves bugs. 

Akito Kawahara:

There’s a caterpillar that can shoot poop the equivalent of about three-quarters of a football field. Honeybees when they locate a patch of flowers, they do something called a waggle dance. 

Luci Jones: Akito has loved bugs his entire life. As a kid growing up in Japan, he would play with beetles for fun or go looking for butterflies with his dad. He says that Japanese culture has a lot of respect for insects. 

Akito Kawahara: If you look at Japanese animation, too, right, there’s a lot of insect related characters that appear. And that’s partially because it’s rooted in the culture.

Fatima Husain: But, Akito says insects aren’t just cool — they’re important. For him, the main benefits boil down to 5 Ps.

Akito Kawahara: They’re pollinators, they’re prey, they’re physical decomposers. And they help progress, science, science and technology. And they also provide pleasure as well.

Luci Jones: Akito says insects can also help keep animal populations under control and make useful products like beeswax and silk.

Fatima Husain: They are also a great source of protein! People eat them in countries all over the world.

Luci Jones: The problem is, insects are dying off. One recent study suggests that we could lose up to 40% of all insect species in the next few decades. 

Fatima Husain: That prediction is a little controversial among scientists, but there’s no doubt insect numbers are going down at a scary rate. 

Megan Hall: Wow. What’s killing all of the bugs? 

Luci Jones: A lot of things. Obviously, insecticides are bad for insects. Conventional farms use a TON of them. That’s a lot of poison.

Fatima Husain: Just like other animals, insects are losing their habitat. And climate change is affecting their numbers as well. 

Megan: What would happen if we lost all of those insects?

Luci Jones: Akito says we might go hungry. 

Akito Kawahara: If you go to the grocery store, the majority of vegetables and food items that are in the produce section are insect pollinated.So imagine a world without insects, right? We’re not gonna have any food.

Fatima Husain: And we won’t be the only ones in trouble. Remember, insects make up the majority of all animals on the planet. 

Luci Jones: If insect populations go down, so will the things that rely on them to live. 

Megan Hall: What can we do to prevent this from happening? 

Fatima Husain: In terms of protecting insects, organic farms are much better than conventional farms. So, you could buy organic foods. 

Luci Jones: And if you have a yard or balcony, grow some native plants. They create a great space for insects to live and grow as long as you don’t use insecticides. 

Fatima Husain: Akito says we can also reframe how we see bugs in the first place.

Akito Kawahara: Insects are beautiful, incredible organisms, and all we have to do is stop and just take a look. 

Luci Jones: So, the next time you see a bug think about how you can protect it, instead of swatting it away.

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society, the Climate Solutions Initiative and the Public’s Radio.

The post What’s happening to all of the insects? appeared first on TPR: The Public's Radio.

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Megan Hall: Welcome to Possibly, where we take on huge problems like the future of our planet and break them down into small questions with unexpected answers. I’m Megan Hall. 

Today we have a question from Natalie Herbermann. She’s heard that when you put your clothes in the washing machine, they can leave behind harmful particles… And she’s wondering if there’s anything she can do about that. 

We had Luci Jones and Fatima Husain from our Possibly Team look into this question. Welcome, Luci and Fatima! 

Luci Jones: Hi, Megan! 

Fatima Husain: Hello! 

Megan Hall: So, what is Natalie talking about? Do my clothes really release harmful particles when I wash them?

Luci Jones: To learn more about this question, we spoke with Timnit Kefela,

Timnit Kefela: It’s like Tim is neat.

Fatima Husain: She’s a Ph.D. candidate in environmental sciences at U.C. Santa Barbara. 

She says those harmful particles Natalie is talking about are called microplastics. 

Timnit Kefela: So microplastics are small pieces of plastic… they typically range from the size of one nanometer to less than five millimeters in size.

Megan Hall: How big is that? 

Luci Jones: Well, five millimeters is about the width of a pencil eraser.

Fatima Husain: And a nanometer is small enough that you can’t really see it. 

Megan Hall: Okay… but what do microplastics have to do with our clothing? 

Luci Jones: These days, nearly 60% of clothes worldwide are made out of synthetic plastic fibers like nylon, polyester, acrylic, and rayon. 

Fatima Husain: When those clothes begin to fall apart, they release microfibers — a type of microplastic.

Megan Hall: you’re saying that my clothing sheds tiny pieces of plastic?

Luci Jones: Yeah, unless you’re wearing plant-based clothes made out of something like cotton or hemp — they also shed fibers, but those fibers break down faster and don’t have plastic in them. 

Megan Hall: What does this have to do with my laundry?

Fatima Husain: Well, that shedding also happens when you wash your clothes.

Luci Jones: Timnit says, to understand this process, imagine that you’re a fiber on a polyester shirt. And then that shirt gets thrown into the washing machine.  

Timnit Kefela: So I’m a tiny little fiber, that’s just chillin on this shirt. And then I got liberated, I’m like, wheee I’m free, I’m no longer part of this big garment.

Luci Jones: Now that the washing machine has jostled you out of place, you swirl around in the water and drain through the washing machine’s filter, if it even has one. 

Megan Hall: Because you’re small enough to slip through?

Fatima Husain: Right, and then you flow out to the wastewater treatment plant and then you could make your way back into the environment.

Megan Hall: So, what should we tell Natalie? Do her clothes leave behind harmful particles when she washes them? Should she be doing something different?

Luci Jones: Well, the research is not totally clear yet. Some lab experiments show that when animals eat these microfibers, it makes it harder for them to digest their food, grow and make babies. 

Fatima Husain: So far, many scientists think these microfibers aren’t causing enough problems that you should dramatically change your clothing choices or laundry habits.  

Luci Jones: But, we know her clothes DO shed microplastics and that we’re creating more every day. 

Fatima Husain: So, if Natalie is worried, Timnit says there are things she can use to catch the microfibers in her wash. There are laundry balls, wash bags for your clothes, and filters you install in your laundry drain. 

Luci Jones: But, if she’s worried about plastic in the environment, I would focus more on avoiding single use plastics like bags, cups and take out containers.

Megan Hall: Got it! Thanks, Luci and Fatima! 

That’s it for today. For more information, or to ask a question about the way you recycle, use energy, or make any other choice that affects the planet, go to the public’s radio dot org slash possibly. Or subscribe to us wherever you get your podcasts. 

Possibly is a co-production of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society and the Public’s Radio. 

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